Real Estate .Adding to and appraising the value of property Essay

Real Estate .Adding to and appraising the value of property - Essay Example The size of the residential market has shown a consistent increase from ?753 billion in 2001 to ?2369 in 2009 (www. ipd.com/linkclick.aspx). According to the UK IPD residential index of 2009, based on a sample of 11,143 properties covering ?3.9 billion at the end of December 2009, the returns on residential complexes consistently increased in 2009. Moreover, out of the total capital market value of ?3.81 billion for the UK property market, 20.9% is based in the south east, the zone within which the city of Reading falls into. In the south eastern area, the capital growth was 10% and income returns were 4.8%. Hence at the outset, it may be stated that this area generally appears to be a viable from the point of view of investment over a long term, because property values have generally been good over the long term. Income returns were 2.9% in 2009 and capital growth was 8.1 (www.ipd.com). For commercial properties, the income return was 7.4, but capital growth had dropped to -3.6. Whe n returns are annualised over a period of five years, the south eastern region demonstrated income growth of about 5% but no capital growth (www. ipd.com/linkclick.aspx, p12). ... The levels of associated risk were also higher for commercial properties, i.e, 13.0 as compared to a return of 6.0 (www. ipd.com/linkclick.aspx, p21). Projections which have been made on real annualised returns from real estate show a loss of -11% over a three year period and -1% over a 5 year period, such that any proposal for the future on the Sulis property in reading needs to factor in some potential losses that could arise in the investment being considered. The real income growth has been steadily dropping in commercial real estate; when real capital growth in commercial property is taken into account over a fifty year period, i.e, inflation minus 1.2% per year for commercial property (www. ipd.com/linkclick.aspx, p24). Annualised rental growth over a nine year period was 0.78% for commercial properties. In terms of current asking prices for commercial property, the general commercial locations around Valpy street in reading are being offered at prices ranging from 650 to 700 p er square foot and the asking price rents for offices are in the range of ?1200 to ?2500 depending upon the size of the individual units. The economic recession over the past four years has impacted upon the real estate market in reading, as in other parts of the country, by creating a glut of distressed properties being offered for sale because they are foreclosed and unable to keep up with payments. Interest rates have remained low, which has been a boon for those on mortgages with low interest payments. While low interest rates are advantageous for buyers at the present time because it allows them the opportunity to acquire a fixed rate mortgage, at the low rate, it also requires a much higher down payment,

Property Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Property Law - Essay Example 4. On this account, Leo gave Sonya a cheque of ? 100,000 on his own current account and a note saying that his share of the house was hers. He gave Sharon the key to a tin box under his bed saying that the contents were for her. He gave Ben his accounts business card telling him to contact the accountant who had his entire share certificate so that he should get ownership of them, selling them and thereafter give the proceeds in equal shares to Sharon and Sonya. 5. Leos tin contained a cheque for winnings from national lotto, a set of keys to his villa in Argentina, s set of keys to his car and a bag of Argentinian money. 6. Leo recovered from his illness, however on leaving the door for his first walk, part of the roof fell on him and killed him. 7. Ben sold the shares and used the proceeds for a holiday. The Law: In particular, I rely upon the following laws and case laws. 1. Re Craven Estates (No 1) (1937) I Ch 423, HC 2. Re Beaumont (1902) 1 CH 889 3. Cain vs. Moon (1896) 2QB 283 4. Wilkes vs. Allington (1931) 2 CH 104 5. Birch vs. Treasury Solicitor (1950) 2 All ER 1198 6. Re Lilingstone Deceased (1952) All ER 184 7. Woodard vs. Woodard (1991) The Times, 18th March CA. 8. Sen vs. Headley, (1991) CH 425 9. Stock Transfer Act of 1963 10. The Wills Act of 1837 11. Agnew vs. Belfast Banking Co. (1896) 2 IR 204 12. Re Dudman (1925) 1 CH 553 Donatio Mortis Causa: 1. The gifts under this case are known as donation mortis causa. These gifts are conditional and possession take place after the death of the donor.The Wills Act of 1837 allows the issuance of such gifts.Farley (2002) notes that in the case of Re Craven Estates, the court held that a person is not allowed to dispose of his property after death under British laws but an exemption is provided for by the Wills Act of 1837 (p.45). But this principle of donation mortis causa is an exemption as provided by the same act of 1837. 2. In Re Beaumont, the court held that Donatio Mortis Causa is a singular form of gift and is amphibious nature. It is neither inter vivos nor testamentary and the recipient is entitled to the gift after the donor dies (Jackson, 1972). 3. Keeton (1968) by using the case of Cain v Moon observes that for a gift under donation mortis causa to be valid it must satisfy the following conditions, the gifts must be made in contemplation of death and not necessarily expectation (p.61). The recipient must receive the subject matter of the gift and there must be a condition that the gift reverts back to the donor in case he recovers. 4. The validity of donation mortis causa does not depend on whether the donor died of the anticipated cause, but on whether the donor actually died. In Wilkes vs. Allington, it was held that the most important issue in DMC is whether the donor actually died (Fitzgerald and Muncie, 1983). 5. Harrison (1965) observes that if a title does not pass by delivery, a DMC can be valid if there is evidence of possession of title or property which entitle s the possessor to the property given, and he cites the case of Birch v treasury solicitor, where the court held that if the gift in question is bulky, the handling to the recipient a means of accessing the gift, i.e. the key is symbolic enough to constitute delivery (p.36). THE CASE: 1. The first issue noted in the gifts given to Sonya, Sharon

The Industrial And Commercial Bank Of China

The Industrial And Commercial Bank Of China The main aspect which has been taken into account in this report addresses the understanding of various global business strategies and organisation form and structure of the Industrial and Commercial Bank of China (ICBC) locally and globally to earn its competetive advantage. The relevant theories were taken into consideration and the in-depth analysis of global business strategy which were used by ICBC was undertaken. This report contains background informatin of the bank. The Chineses banking enviornment was taken into consideration as well as the internal enviornment of the company was analysed with the help of SWOT, PESTEL and Porter 5 forces frameworks. To illustrate the performance of the ICBC a resource audit, which includes assets, resources and core competencies was presented. This report is focuses on the identification of companys local and global corporate strategy . This report concludes with the strategic implementation of its policies, challenges which are being faced by ICBC and reccomendation to deal with those challenges. Introduction: ICBC offers its customers various financial services. ICBC operates all across the globe. According to Forbes (2011) ICBC is the seventh largest publich company. History of ICBC: ICBC started with registered capital of 20.8 billion Yuan and the capital and assets added up-to 333.3 billion Yuan. In the late eighties ICBC became the formal member of International Saving Banks Institute. In October 1989 ICBC introduced the Peony Quasi Credit Card for the first time. The ICBC network in 91 cities got connected with a nationwide computer network system in October 1990. In the early nineties the bank was according to the Euromoney Journal was ranked number 8 in terms of capital share. ICBC went global in March 1992 and its first overseas subsidiary was set up in Singapore. In November 1995 ICBC expanded out of Asia and their first office in Europe was in London. ICBC went online in December 1997 and their official website was launched. ICBC jointly with Hong Kong Bank of East Asia acquired ICBC-BEA Finance Shareholding Co. Ltd with a 75% of shareholding in February 1998. In September 1999 ICBC launched 95588 its telephone banking services nationwide and in February and August 2000 respectively, ICBC began its Corporate Internet Banking and Personal Internet Banking services. In May of 2002 Peony Card Centre was established and it became the first professional bankcard business organization in China Peony Card became a sought after brand. Furthermore, in 2003 ICBC signed Agreement with Microsoft (China) in Beijing for the co-operation of Personal Internet Bankings security. The same year on December 18, ICBC launched its new personal Internet banking product [emailprotected]. In February 2004 PricewaterhouseCoopers designed ICBCs 8 year plan for corporate governance system and over-all risk management reform system and ICBC put it in practice in April 2005 under the State Councils Approval. Moreover on October 27, 2009, with 236 billion restricted shares released to the market ICBC becomes the No.1 A-share quoted company and the largest bank in the world by market capitalization. In the last quarter of 2009 the ICBC has expanded itself as it h ad received the business licence to operate in ICBC Malaysia Company Limited from Bank Negara Malaysia and ICBC Hanoi Branch, the first license issued to a foreign bank this year. December 16, 2009, The Central Bank of United Arab Emirates (UAE) officially approved and issued a wholesale banking license to ICBC to set up a branch in Abu Dhabi, a new ICBC branch in the Middle East for ICBC to spread its wings in the region. Organisational structure of ICBC: Organisational structure can be considered as a pyramid shaped system that positions the relations between the entities within an organisation vertically. Authority, power and responsibility are focused at the top and the decisions are made here and are implemented by the rest of the organisation. (Daft, Murphy, Willmott, 2010) The structure of ICBC is a hybrid structure, a combination of characteristics of various approaches tailored to specific strategic needs (Daft,2007). Functional and divisional structures combined create the organisational strucutre of ICBC. The organisation structure of ICBC consists of series of supportive departments expert in functional duties, containing Comprehensive Administration Departments, supervisory Supporting Departments and Affiliated Institutions. In the functions economy of scale is encourged due to functional structure. A management model of centralized legal person authorization and controlling one level down and supervising two levels lower is implemented by ICBC. The banking system of ICBC is centeralised in one location. (ICBC, 2009) The strategic business unit refers to the divisional structure. ICBC contains a number of Business Development Departments: Corporate Banking, personal banking, investment banking and e-banking, etc. which can fullfil individual needs and satisfactions of clients. A hybrid structure proposes greater flexibility for organisation (Daft, 2007) that aligns with the current corporate aims and strategy with divisional goals, functional expertise and productivity. Source: ICBC Annual Report 2005 The latest chart of organisation is attached in the appendix. The distribution of power: The distribution of power has been more decentralised and flexible after ICBC turned into a public corporation as compare to early times when it was not listed. Now every hierarchical level has a decent chance to take their decision on their own. Hence, the working attitudes of its employees might increase. Now they will be more motivated as they are part of decision making process and will share the success as well as the losses of the company. The biggest drawback of this managemnt style will be communication network. With decentralising, it will be difficult to communicate with other hierachical levels because of their interest conflicts. (ICBC, 2009) Enviornmental Scanning: To analyse the strategic position of any company there are several frameworks, techniques, and methods such as SWOT analysis, PESTEL and Porters 5 forces available. SWOT-Analysis: SWOT is an abbreviation for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats. SWOT analysis is used to identify the internal and external factors which can be used to achieve a certain goal or improve the performance of any business. Strengths and Weaknesses are the internal factors of an organisation and Opportunities and Threats are the external factors to that organisation. The internal factors relate to any company and the external factors relate to the external environment of the organisation. (What is SWOT Analysis, 2011) Strengths: With a market value of $239,5 billion, ICBC is worlds leading bank in the world by market capitalization and it is also one of the Big Four in the domestic Chinese banking industry and has a leading marketing share in China. Due to a strong distribution of network which consist of 18,000 domestic institutions, 203 overseas institutions and over 1,440 correspondent banks worldwide, as well as 7,085 self-service banking centres and 28,656 automated teller machines ICBC has been providing its financial services to (3.10 million corporate banking, 190 million personal banking ) customers. ICBC also developed further the cash management as it got the Best RMB Cash Management Services (China) Award by the magazines The Asset and FinanceAsia. in 2008 with the score of 96.23 ICBC topped the list of 50 Most Honoured Listed Companies of China as well as was awarded the best custodian bank by The Asset, Global Custodian, Global Finance and Securities Times. Source: own presentation With 240 million issued bank cards in 2008 ICBC was the largest credit card issuing bank in China, an increase of 28.20 million over the end of 2007. Therefore, Visa and MasterCard had awarded ICBC with Award for Leading Technology of Credit Card and Best Product Innovation of the Year respectively. ICBC is into investment banking, wealth management, insurance and asset management which lead it to the universal banking model alongside the traditional banking which helped them to diversify their revenue flow. In FY2008 and FY2009, the bank generated around 52% of total revenues from corporate banking, personal banking generates 32% of revenues, treasury and other operations contribute 16% of the total revenues. Diverse sources of revenue such as settlement, clearing and cash management, investment banking, corporate wealth management, asset fiduciary, guarantee and commitment were the main causes for non-interest income. Weaknesses: ICBCs allowance in financial year (FY) 2008 and FY2009 amounted to 130.15% and 164.41% of total non-performing loans which was higher than the impairment losses on loans in absolute terms of last two years. This increase in allowances was on account of both external and internal factors. Hence, the profitability of the bank was affected by the increased allowances for impairments. Opportunities: At the end of 2010, ICBC had 203 branches in 18 overseas countries and regions and established correspondent bank relationships with 1,358 overseas banks in 122 countries and regions all across the globe. According to Swiss Re, Total takaful premiums written in 2007 was about US$1.7 billion, and it is expected to propagate to US$7 billion by 2015. ICBC can secure the benefits of being the first Chinese player venturing into Islamic banking. Several products and new services has been introduced by the ICBC after the financial crisis as well as facilitating the foreign trade companies to conduct export and import business. Chinas insurance market is growing rapidly. . In 2013, the Chinese insurance market is forecast to have a gross premium income of $353.4 billion, an increase of over 100% since 2008. Threats: After enjoying the double digit growth for last several years, and the banking industry was benefited most of it but late Chinese economy is having a slight decline. In second quarter of 2010, Chinas economy grew by 10.3%, down from 11.9% in the first quarter of 2010 and it might remain the same for the last 2 quarters as well. With emerging China several foreign banks are interested in or already started to undertake a number of businesses, including custodian services investors, insurance agency business etc. Foreign banks in China are allowed to offer over 100 types of products and services under 12 broad categories of business activity. According to the China Banking Regulatory Commission (CBRC), within the five years since Chinas WTO accession in early 2002, operational entities opened by foreign banks increased from 190 to 312. Since foreign institutional investors were first allowed to invest in Chinese banks starting in 1996, 35 overseas banks have acquired stakes in 23 Chinese banks by 2008. As competition was continued to intensify in 2009. Hence, this could affect the revenues and profits of the bank. PESTEL Analysis: PESTEL is not just the internal environment but also the macro-economic factors affecting the external environment of a company affect the way it conducts business. These factors need to be kept in mind while formulating strategies and making decisions for the future. Demand and supply may fluctuate due to a number of vital variables that may not be in the control of the management. PEST-EL analysis is a framework used for categorizing Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental and Legal issues influencing the operating environment of the organization (Johnson and Scholes 2008). Political: In 1976 China made a huge breakthrough when it abandoned its old autocratic socialist system and turned into to modern Socialism which was more focused on Market-oriented economy. China has intensified its involvement to international organization since 1990s. After becoming the member of World Trade Organisation (WTO) China has opened the doors for the foreign banks to enter the Chinese banking industry. Economic: China besides India is one of the emerging giants and it has already occupied the second place as worlds biggest economy after USA. Therefore, China is a very attractive destination for all the foreign companies especially in the manufacturing sector. There is a slight decline in the Chinese Economy due to the financial crisis but the forecast for the coming years is much brighter. In comparison to planned economy before 1976, China is reforming its economy now for a more open market and free trade with other countries. Social: China ranks at the top in terms of population which is 1,331,460,000 till 2009. China lacks the high potential individuals and has the insufficient leadership which can follow the rapid economic growth. To control the population the policy of one child is not seen everywhere with the correct frame of mind. The biggest hurdle for all the foreign companies is the language. Chinese people are tied strongly with their culture therefore local language is the only way to conduct the business. Technological: Since the introduction and popularity of Internet online shopping is more into practice now in China According to CNNIC the number of online purchasers is 420 million. Internet Banking and Telebanking is becoming more common now. In 2006 China had approximately 400 million mobile phone users and 6.1 million of them are connected online. Environmental: The natural resources such as land water and air and the environment of China has been damaged seriously by its rapid economic progression. A large amount of usage of polluted energy such as Coal and oil. China is the third largest coal and oil consumer in the world. Human right Issue (500,000 individuals are in custody without any charge and trial and 1 million cannot access to Legal system. (Amnesty International) Legal: A set of policies has been established by the Bank of China to fight against white colour crimes. More than 200 administrative rules and regularity documents has been implemented by China Banking Regularity Commission to control the financial crimes. China offers a open market to the foreign banks. Porters 5 Forces Framework: According to Porter there are 5 main forces which can shape every market and industry. These five main forces assist to figure out the intensity of competition to the profitability and attractiveness of an industry. Porters 5 forces framework on banking industry in China will provide us a sutiable tool to depict ICBCs position in the chinese banking sector. Being a leader in the banking industry ICBC has to deal with all these forces to sustain its top ranked position. These five forces are: risk of new entrants, rivalry, bargaining powes of buyers, bargaining power of suppliers and threat of subtitute prodcut. Porters 5 forces framework for ICBC as follows: Risk of new entrants: The enty barrier for foreign banks has disappeared when China Joined the WTO in 2002. Many foreign banks consider China a profitable destination for banking industry. Several finanacial and non financial companies can easily come to China and start operating their business. Rivalry: Besides the Big Four banks in China several other foreign banks have started their operation in China which has intensified the rivalry which has been there forever. Now ICBC has to compete not only with the Big Four sondern with big foreign banks such as HSBC. Bargaining power of buyers: Banking industry is a high buyer concentration industry. China is the largest country in terms of its population. A significant number of people use bank service, such as deposit money, mortgage, loan, investment, insurance and currency exchange these days. Internet is changing everyones life customers can easily obtain the information via internet. In the banking industry interest rate and service charge are senestive indicators for customers. In recent years various subtitute products and services are available for example currency exchange, insurances and loans and they are provided normally by the other financial institutions. Bargaining power of supplier: Credit Card industry is a high concentration ratio industry and ICBC has been awarded with awards from the leading companies such as VISA and MasterCard Worldwide. Although few Aother companies also provide credit card system, such as JCB and American Express but theie market share in the world is much less than VISA and MAstercard. So switiching cost might be high for ICBC. Substitute products: Internet made a huge difference to many organisations when it comes to deal with money. Now they do not need to transfer huge ammouts through banks. They can do the same with other low charge service and it is also more convinient. The services such as Real-time money transfer (i.e. Western Union), real-time payment (i.e. Paypal), currency exchange (i.e. Xe.com) and insurance (i.e. InsWeb.com) through Internet provide a high quality but low service charge service. Resource audit: Opportunities can be created and exploit in the external environment in which a business usually operates. Besides these opportunities threats are also present which can impair any business. However, to deal with these threats and exploit the opportunities, a business requires the right resources and capabilities. The current holding resources of any company can be recognized by the resource audit. These resources can be either owned (e.g. plant, machinery) or acquired from other resources such as partnerships and joint ventures. Financial resources: Existing Finance: According to the first quarterly report (2011) of ICBC, the bank has continued to push forward to their growth and obtained a sustainable profit as compare to last year. The total assets have an increase of 6.92% from the last year and its value is now 14,389,996 (RMB in million). Besides the assets the liabilities have also increased simultaneously and its value is now 13,517,771(RMB in million) which are 6.97% more than last quarter. The equity attributable to equity holders has an increment of double digit (10.54%). Net profit for this period is 53,836 (RMB in million) which is 29.03% more than the first quarter of 2010. The result shows the successful implementation of their strategy local and globally. Human resources: ICBC is enjoying the services of 387,000 employees till December 2010 at its global and local centres. Physical resources: ICBC has till now around 18,000 outlets and 23,000 ATMs all over China. Intangible resources: As being the leading institute in the banking industry ICBC is enjoying their good brand image. ICBC has also obtained the partnerships with several banks all across the world especially in Africa. ICBC has also won the reputation for their Internet banking services. ICBC has one of the secure internet banking system in China. Current Strategy: In June 2009 ICBC had introduced its three year new Development Strategy Plan and Implementation Scheme of that plan to all its offices. In the last ten years of ICBCs strategic transformation this plan is the second three year plan and it was based on the implementation experience of the development strategy plan of years between 2006 and 2008. This plan was produced after a comprehensive analysis of the latest development of ICBC and the economic and financial trends at domestic level and global level. Implementation experience of old Plan (2006-2008): The base of this strategic plan was laid on the experience of achievements and failures which had been achieved by ICBC in last 20 years as well as on the direction of Chinas financial reforms. The aim was set to achieve this strategic transformation within next 10 years. The strategies such as adjustment of management structure, development by areas, innovation, service differentiation, cross-border management, comprehensive risk control, and emphasis on technology and human capital were executed successfully and ICBC got better results than it originally expected. Therefore, at the end of 2008 ICBC became the number one ranked bank in market value as well as it became the most profitable bank in the world. ICBC was mainly successful because it enhanced the capability of comprehensive profit-making, paid a close attention to risk control and decided to achieve transformation in self-development. ICBCc new three year Plan (2009-2011): The successful implementation of previous strategic plan gave ICBC the assurance to carry out transformation strategy further to sustain the progress in development. The new plan offers the guiding idea that Guided by scientific outlook on development, striving to enhance core competitiveness, continuing to promote management structural transformation, developing more innovations, and achieving fast, stable and sustainable development of ICBC to seize opportunities to strengthen and to brace its market position. To apply this strategy ICBC has decided to start from the reality and carry out the scientific outlook on development into every step of transition. The New Plan proposes ten strategic projects which attach emphasis to structure adjustment, finance innovation, service upgrading and etc., and a set of precise objectives and measures for various regions and for diverse services according to the general objective and task design of the ten strategic projects. For the successful execution of the strategies ICBC also introduced an implementation scheme to make thorough and specific arrangements of the tasks and responsibilities for different departments and branch offices. ICBC establishes coordination mechanisms to coordinate the New Plan to ensure the flexibility and adaptability. Furthermore, at the start of each year, required adjustments will be made to the evaluate indicators according to the actual changes in the business environment and the implementation effect of the new plan in the preceding year. The existing problems, implementation progress and the implementation situation would be strictly monitored through regular inspections and reported to the Board of directors. To accommodate their corporate social responsibilities ICBC has developed poverty alleviation project in Nanjiang County and Tongjiang County in Sichuan Province and Chengkou County in the city of Chongqing. Over 300 (RMB in millions) has ICBC invested already in this project. This amount includes loans as well as the donations which have been distributed by the bank to eight hope projects which includes schools and medical treatment centres. There are several other projects which ICBC is directly responsible or helping them to improve the social life of the people of China. According to the Annual Report Announcement 2010 ICBC has earned more profit in 2010 as compare to 2009. ICBC is getting those results because of their clear and good implementation of that strategy. Besides the increased profit overseas asset size had also increased in the last year as shown in the following diagram. That explains very clearly that ICBC is on the right path regarding their domestic and global strategy. The exceptional outcome of ICBC in 2010 especially at a time when it was concerned with a complex and changing operating environment was mainly a result of the Banks successful implementation of its strategy at home as well as overseas. 12 new branches had been established in 2010 and a global network encompassing 203 overseas subsidiaries placed in 28 countries, spreading over five continents worldwide. Every business company faces threats and challenges although the numbers depict the different picture. These challenges could be overcome by the company by bringing some minor changes in their business strategy. As many other companies ICBC also faces some challenges which needed to be addressed. Firstly, ICBC is growing very rapidly which can cause some problem as it may affect their quality of service. Secondly the bigger challenge which is coming in the way of ICBC is the competition with foreign banks. After several foreign banks entering China makes hard for the ICBC. Now ICBC has more competition and even small mistakes can lead to huge financial and customer losses. Reccomendations for improvement: ICBC is facing a few challenges during their successful stint. These challenges has been mentioned above. These are not huge challenges and does not need any drastic changes in their strategy doemstically and globally. First challenge which was mentioned is their rapid growth. To grow fast is not a challenge unless you start compromising on the quality of your services. To keep in check this problem they need more check and balance in their organsiational structuer. As I mentioned above in the organisational structure that the main problem of their structure is communication problem. When IC BC can sort out that problem then there will be no compromise in the quality. Secondly, the callenge which can cause ICBC more problem is the competition in the chinese banking sector with the foreign banks as well as with the chinese banks. These foreign banks are entering China with much more oncoming force. Now ICBC can not afford any mishandling with their customer. A small mistake can lead ICBC to huge financial and customer loses. ICBC needs to transform their strategy in a way that they deal with their competetors in a way that they do not lose any customers locally as well as globally.

The Coral Reefs Essay -- Sea Ocean Nature Wildlife Environmental Essay

The Coral Reefs Can we save â€Å"Tropical Rain Forests of the Ocean†? Anyone who’s ever scuba dived at a coral reef and seen the perfect handprint of dead coral can appreciate how fragile and delicate this ecosystem is. Coral reefs are not just rock, like some people believe, but are an animal. Corals are a type of animal called a polyp, the simplest of predators that eat meat in the form of drifting zooplankton†¦all corals have boarders, zillions of microscopic, one-celled plants called zooxanthellae that live inside the polyps and transform sunlight into oxygen, keeping the corals alive. As you will see, the corals need these algae in order to live, but too much is deadly. Coral reefs are limited to where they live. Most live in the narrow band of the equator, as they need light, the shallow near shore areas is where most coral reefs can be found. Their biological riches, though, hold value far beyond their beauty. After tropical rain forests, coral reefs may be the most biologically diverse ecosystem, holding a substantial portion of the basics of life on the planet. They form what is thought to be the most species rich ecosystem in the oceans, the crucible of life some 3,000,000,000 years ago. Covering just 0.17% of the ocean floor, an area the size of Texas, coral reefs are home to perhaps one –quarter of all marine species, earning them the title â€Å"the tropical rain forests of the Oceans.† Unfortunately, these beautiful and diverse ecosystems are in trouble from a large variety of sources. These sources being everything from natural water temperature fluctuations to being mined for building materials. One source of abuses to the coral reefs ... ...eefs helps, but does nothing to prevent runoff from pesticides and fertilizer. Many resorts educate divers about not touching the coral, but it is unrealistic to expect that the coral could not get accidentally bumped. One country could ban pollution, but if the next country doesn’t, what good does that do? It needs to be a global effort if we are to save these â€Å"tropical rain forests of the ocean.† Works Cited Butler,James N., et al. â€Å"The Bermuda Fisheries: a tragedy of the commons averted?† Environment Jan-Feb/1993/pg6+ Matsen,Bradford. â€Å"Travel to Exotic Foreign Lands! See Beautiful Coral Reefs! And Kill Them!† Mother Jones May-June/1998/:pg60+ Raloff,Janet. â€Å"Sea Sickness.† Science News Jan/1999/:pg72+ U.S. Coral Reef Task Force.www.coralreef.gov 4/23/00 Weber,Peter. â€Å"Coral Reefs face the Threat of Extinction.† USA Today May/1993/:pg62+

President Obama and American Civil Rights in the Twenty first Century

Civil rights liberties had been celebrated and established in the Untied States only in recent history. Barack Obama’s ascension to the presidency is the fruition of the long struggle of Black Americans for equal rights in all aspect of American society. From the days of Martin Luther King Jr. , however, civil rights in the USA have taken on various other issues, including the rights of homosexuals, women and the overall issue of racism, which is tangentially connected to the contentions in immigration. Pres.Obama’s leadership in guaranteeing and even expanding civil rights is done in the context of grave economic and political challenges to the United States. Voting Rights. The White House website (2010) states that â€Å"Civil Rights Division to ensure that voting rights are protected and Americans do not suffer from increased discrimination during a time of economic distress. President Obama†¦ believes that our anti-discrimination employment laws should be expa nded to include sexual orientation and gender identity.He supports full civil unions and federal rights for LGBT couples and opposes a constitutional ban on same-sex marriage†¦. [and] that we must ensure adoption rights for all couples and individuals, regardless of their sexual orientation. † The issue of equality is at the heart of civil rights. Equality, on the other hand, is at the heart of American democracy. While the United States’ practice of democracy may not be perfect, it is seen as one of the best working democratic systems in the world.Hence, if any citizen (regardless of class, gender preference or race) fails to vote, their voices shall have been curtailed and their representation may be at stake. Donna Brazile (2010) wrote that the 15th Amendment to the US Constitution was enacted to give voting rights to minorities. But due to Jim Crow laws, various States managed to circumvent the Constitutional amendment in favor of their own prejudices against B lacks and other minorities.Brazile (2010) went on to write that the voting rights of certain minorities are in danger in several states because of certain rules that make it difficult for these minorities to cast their votes. While the civil rights movement in the 1960s was mainly about the rights of Black Americans, the issue now includes other races, particularly Spanish-speaking peoples in the United States. Conservatives, Black Americans and Racism. The Tea Party is supposed to be an answer to the perceived failures of traditional parties in the United States.Ironically, in defense of the Tea Party, even Black conservatives consider the issue of â€Å"race† as a phony category. This tirade was in response to the accusation hurled by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored Peoples (NAACP) that the Tea Party is slow to discipline the racist elements in their party, among them are conservative Tom Tancredo, whose assertion implied that those without enough En glish literacy are responsible for electing America’s enemy—Barack Obama.Tancredo even criticized the â€Å"cult of multiculturalism† as the culprit for the problems of the United States (Travis, 2010, Berger, 2010). While some of elements from Tea Party may deny the category of race as an important issue in American politics, the historical record and events could not be denied. Race has been one of the most contentious issues in American politics and history. By bringing back the issue of literacy in voting, Tancredo is bringing back the Jim Crow laws days when literacy tests were used as a means to disenfranchise minorities and take away their right to vote.Subsequently, this rule became the source of violence in various states. Race and Gender Issues. Another civil rights issue that may appear to have arisen only recently is the issue of same-sex marriages. The most recent controversial matter was California’s Proposition 8, which was meant to re-esta blish the traditional definition of marriage as union between a man and a woman. But the battle for the rights of same-sex is not over. Judge Vaughn Walker, however, declared that this Proposition is unconstitutional.In his ruling, Walker said that â€Å"Proposition 8 fails to advance any rational basis in singling out gay men and lesbians for denial of a marriage license. Indeed, the evidence shows Proposition 8 does nothing more than enshrine in the California Constitution the notion that opposite-sex couples are superior to same-sex couples† (CNN, 2010). The issue of same-sex marriage is complicated by tradition and religion. Historically, however, race relations had also been complicated by tradition and religion.Hence, Judge Walker even stated that at some point, race restrictions on marriage were also implemented by many states in the past. Individual States and the Federal Government. There are a number of similarities in the civil rights issues of today and that previ ously faced by the United States. One such parallel that will resolve or further complicate the matter will be the relationship between and among the rules and policies of individual states and that of the federal government.While the federal government is faced with so many challenges from different areas—economy, politics, international relations and immigration among others, individual states will try to circumvent some constitutional rules if the leaders of these states feel that the Federal government is too busy to take notice. Already, some voting rights in Georgia are being threatened and minority votes are being undermined. The issue of same-sex marriage will also be decided upon by individual states, at least at first, before the United States Supreme Court step in to resolve it finally.The 1965 Voting Rights Act was enacted to guarantee equal voting rights. Failure to protect that will be tantamount to undermining America’s legacy of democracy. Reference Ber ger, J. (2010). Tea Party Launches Counter-Revolution. Fox News. Retrieved 8 August 2010 from http://liveshots. blogs. foxnews. com/2010/02/04/tea-party-launches-counter-revolution/. Brazile, D. (2010). Stay Vigilant to Protect Voting Rights. Cable News Network. Retrieved 8 August 2010 from http://edition. cnn. com/2010/OPINION/08/06/brazile. voting. rights. act/index. html. CNN (2010).Opponents of Same-sex Marriage to File Appeal in California Case. Cable News Network. Retrieved 8 August 2010 from http://edition. cnn. com/2010/US/08/05/california. same. sex. ruling/index. html. Travis, S. (2010). Black Conservatives Join Hands to Deny Racism within the Tea Party Movement. CNN Political Ticker. Retrieved 8 August 2010 from http://politicalticker. blogs. cnn. com/2010/08/04/black-conservatives-join-hands-to-deny-racism-within-the-tea-party-movement/? iref=allsearch White House Website (2010). Civil Rights. Retrieved 8 August 2010 from http://www. whitehouse. gov/issues/civil-rights.

Pediatric Nurse Practitioner Essay

What’s an NP? A nurse practitioner is a registered nurse who has additional education and training in a specialty area such as family practice or pediatrics. Pediatric and family practice NPs can provide regular health care for kids. Nurse practitioners have a master’s degree in nursing and board certification in their specialty. A pediatric NP has advanced education, skills, and training in caring for infants, children, and teens. Licensed as nurse practitioners and registered nurses, NPs follow the rules and regulations of the Nurse Practice Act of the state where they work. If accredited through the national board exam, the NP will have an additional credential such as Certified Pediatric Nurse Practitioner or Certified Family Nurse Practitioner Task performed by a pediatric nurse practitioner ï‚ · Diagnosing, treating, evaluating and managing acute and chronic illness and disease ï‚ · obtaining medical histories and conducting physical examinations ï‚ · Ordering, performing, and interpreting diagnostic ï‚ · Prescribing physical therapy and other rehabilitation treatments ï‚ · Prescribing pharmacologic treatments and therapies for acute and chronic illness ï‚ · Providing prenatal care and family planning services ï‚ · providing well-child care, including screening and immunizations ï‚ · Providing primary and specialty care services, health-maintenance care for adults, including annual physicals ï‚ · Providing care for patients in acute and critical care settings ï‚ · Counseling and educating patients on health behaviors, self-care skills, and treatment options Education requirements An advanced degree in nursing is required for pursuing a career as a pediatric nurse practitioner. Before a student enrolls in a master’s degree program, completion of an undergraduate degree program in nursing is necessary. While many students complete a Bachelor of Science in Nursing, other students may choose to complete an associate degree in nursing program followed by an ADN-MSN bridge program Regardless of undergraduate degree choice, the curriculum prepares students for careers as nurses. Undergraduate degrees programs include general education courses and nursing-specific courses and clinical. The clinical experience places students in a live health care setting, such as a hospital or health clinic. Core nursing classes include topics, such as: * Community nursing * Health assessment * Nursing ethics * Anatomy and physiology * Complex health problems Schools that provide programs in this career: USF UCF UF Salary The salary for this career ranges from experience; the more experienced you are the higher your pay the less experienced you are the lower your pay. Average – $92,250 High – $109,688 Low – $81,509 Sources http://www1.salary.com/Nurse-Practitioner-Salary.html http://www.graduatecatalog.ucf.edu/programs/program.aspx?id=1362&tid=708 http://health.usf.edu/nursing/academics/pediatric/index.htm http://admissions.nursing.ufl.edu/degrees/graduate/master-of-science-in-nursing/family-nurse-practitioner/ http://kidshealth.org/parent/system/doctor/nurse_practitioner.html http://education-portal.com/pediatric_nurse_practitioner.html http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_task_performed_by_nurse_practitioners

4 Pieces of Career Advice You Should Ignore

4 Pieces of Career Advice You Should Ignore I hope you’re coming to this site because you’re seeking solid career advice- and more importantly, that you’re finding it! However, not all career advice is created equal. You should feel free to ignore â€Å"advice† like the tips below. They can seriously hamstring your career path progress or get you stuck in a job that makes you stressed and unhappy.1. â€Å"Do your best to fit in.†Everyone wants job security, and conventional wisdom often tells us that to get it, you should be a cheerful and accommodating member of the team. While being a good team player is going to be necessary in every job you have, that doesn’t mean you have to be a drone who looks, thinks, and acts like everyone else around you. Don’t be afraid to speak up (while still being professional and considerate about it) and be yourself.If you’re afraid to be honest about who you are, or express your ideas, that could be a symptom that the job or the company j ust isn’t the right fit for you. Trying to flatten yourself in the name of getting along will definitely shortchange you in the long run. There could very well be a better fit out there, where the authentic you will be welcomed with open arms.2. â€Å"Follow the money.†To an extent, we’re all mercenary creatures- we have to be, if we want to provide for ourselves and our families (and in my case, a dog with extravagant taste in kibble). That doesn’t mean salary should be the only consideration when accepting or staying at a job. If you’re unhappy or unchallenged at your job but you find that you’re staying there because you’re afraid of earning less elsewhere, that’s a red flag. Think about the minimum salary you’d feel comfortable accepting, if it meant doing a job where you felt the work was meaningful and in line with your goals.3. â€Å"Never turn down an opportunity.†If you applied and interviewed for a job, there’s a good chance you want it. But it’s also possible that during that process, you discovered that the position might not be as great a fit as you expected. They offer you the job anyway- what do you do?It can be hard to say no, especially if it’s a profitable or prestigious upgrade for you. This is a case where you need to listen to your gut. If an opportunity just isn’t right for you, it’s okay to turn it down. Your best interests aren’t just served by your bank account or your job title.4. â€Å"Do what you’re passionate about.†This one sounds great. Who doesn’t want to love their work? In reality, it can be kind of a rabbit hole, where you’re chasing a career path that will never bring you much in the way of fulfillment or stability. If you love music, â€Å"rock star† isn’t the most realistic career goal. If you have an idea for a novel, quitting your job to spend all day at a coffee house with your laptop might not be the wisest decision.If you can find tangible job opportunities in your ideal field, great! Otherwise, maybe a freelance career on the side is the best way to go. Having your passion projects separate from your main career path will help give you balance, while also making sure you can pay the bills.When it comes to any career advice, make sure you’re looking at it in the light of whether it’s best for you. What works for my professional life might not work for yours, and vice versa. It’s always okay to say â€Å"This just isn’t right for me,† and find the strategies that get you where you want to go.

Impact of Communism on the Soviet Union essays

Impact of Communism on the Soviet Union essays Communism is a concept or system of society in which the community owns the major resources and means of production rather than by individuals. In theory, such societies provide for equal sharing of all work, according to ability, and all benefits according to need. Some conceptions of communist societies assume that, ultimately, coercive government would be unnecessary and therefore that such a society would be without rulers. Until the ultimate stages are reached, however, communism involves the abolition of private property by a revolutionary movement responsibility for meeting public needs is then vested in the state. In 1922, the Communists produced a constitution that sounded both democratic and socialist. It set up an elected legislature called the Supreme Soviet and gave all citizens over eighteen the right to vote. All political power, resources, and means of production would belong to the workers and peasants. However the Communist party not the people, reigned supreme. Like the czars before them, the party used the army and secret police to enforce its will. The new government brought much of the old Russian empire under its rule. It then created the Union of Soviet Socialists Republics (Krieger, Larry, Neill, Kenneth, Reynolds, Dr. Edwards 654). Stalin set out to make the Soviet Union into a modern industrial power. Stalin blamed Russias economic backwardness for its many defeats. In 1928 he proposed the first several five year plans aimed at building heavy industry, improving transportation, and increasing farm output. To achieve this economic growth, he brought all economic activity under government control. The Soviet Union developed a command economy in which government officials made all basic economic decisions. The government owned all businesses and allocated financial and other resources. Stalins five-year plan set high production goals, especially for heavy industry and tran...

Types of Feature Stories for Journalists

Types of Feature Stories for Journalists Just as there are different kinds of hard-news stories  in journalism, there are several types of feature stories. Often described as soft news, a feature story doesnt deliver the news directly, as a hard-news story does. A feature story, while containing elements of news, aims to humanize, add color, educate, entertain, and illuminate, says Media-Studies.ca. These stories often build on news that was reported in a previous news cycle. Examples of feature stories include news features, profiles, spot features, trend stories, and live-ins. Feature stories can be found in the main news section of a newspaper, especially if they profile a person or group currently in the news. But they are also likely to be found in sections farther back in the paper- in lifestyles, entertainment, sports, or business sections. They also can be found in other news formats, such as radio, television, and the Internet. News Feature The news feature is just what the name implies: a feature article that focuses on a topic in the news. News features are often published in the main news, or A section, or the local news, or B section, of a paper. These stories focus on hard-news topics but arent deadline stories. They bring a softer writing style to hard news. These articles often are people stories, focusing on individuals behind the news, and they often seek to humanize a set of statistics. A news feature could claim, for example, that a community is experiencing a methamphetamine epidemic. It would begin by citing facts such as  arrest statistics  from local, state, or federal authorities or treatment numbers from area hospitals and drug counselors. Then it might include quotes and information from people involved in different aspects of the story, such as police, emergency room doctors, drug counselors, and meth addicts. This kind of feature story focuses not on a single crime, drug-induced death, or meth-related arrest; instead, it briefly tells the story of one or more of the above-mentioned characters, such as recovering meth addicts. The news feature seeks to put a human face on a crime statistic to bring the story to life for readers and inform them of potential problems with the issue. Profile A profile is an article about an individual, such as a politician, celebrity, athlete, or CEO. Profiles seek to give readers behind-the-scenes looks at what a person is like, warts and all, behind the public persona. Profile articles provide background about the individual: education, life experiences, and challenges faced in getting where he or she is now, as well as basic information such as age, marital status, and family details, including the number of siblings and children. A profile can appear in any section of the paper, from the A section to the business section. For example, in 2016, The Orange County Register ran a feature story on Carl Karcher, the late founder of Carls Jr. The story, written by reporter Nancy Luna, described how Karcher started the fast-food restaurant, which specializes in hamburgers, on July 17, 1941, by selling 10-cent hot dogs, tamales, and chili dogs out of a cart on a street corner in Los Angeles, California. He financed a $326 food cart by mortgaging his Plymouth Super Deluxe for $311, Luna wrote. He paid the rest in cash. The remainder of the article told how Karcher rose from being a poor Ohio farm boy with an eighth-grade education to the owner of one of the most successful fast-food chains in the country. Karcher had passed away in 2008, so Luna interviewed a restaurant official to obtain background information. Spot Feature Spot features are feature stories produced on deadline that focus on a breaking news event. They are often used as sidebars to the mainbar, the deadline news story about an event. Suppose a tornado hits a community. The mainbar would focus on the five Ws and H of the story- the who, what, when, where, why, and how- including the number of casualties, the extent of damage, and rescue efforts. Complementing the mainbar, the paper might publish one or more spot features focusing on various aspects of the event. One story might describe the scene at an emergency shelter where displaced residents were housed. Another might reflect on past tornadoes that have devastated the community. Yet another might examine weather conditions that led to the storm. The paper could publish dozens of spot features depending on the severity of the event. While the main news story would be written in a hard-news style, the spot features would convey a softer feature style, focusing on the human toll of the tragedy. Trend The trend story would likely appear in the lifestyle, fashion, cooking, high-tech, or entertainment section. These stories explore trends such as a new look in womens fall fashions, a website or tech gadget that everyones going nuts over, an indie band attracting a cult following, or a show on an obscure cable channel thats suddenly hot. Trend stories take the pulse of the culture at the moment, looking at whats new, fresh, and exciting in art, fashion, film, music, high technology, cooking, and other areas. Trend stories are usually light, quick, easy-to-read pieces that capture the spirit of whatever trend is being discussed. Live-In The live-in is an in-depth, often magazine-length article that paints a picture of a particular place and the people who work or live there. Live-in stories might appear in the lifestyle section of the paper or in a magazine that the paper publishes occasionally, such as once a week or once a month. Live-ins have been written about homeless shelters, emergency rooms, battlefield encampments, cancer hospices, public schools, and police precincts. Live-in pieces are often a day-in-the-life or week-in-the-life stories that give readers a look at a place they probably wouldnt normally encounter. Reporters doing live-ins must spend a lot of time in the places theyre writing about, hence the name live-in. Thats how they get a sense of the places rhythm and atmosphere. Reporters have spent days, weeks, even months doing live-ins (some have been turned into books). The live-in in some ways is the ultimate feature story: an example of the reporter- and, then, the reader- becoming immersed in the topic. Though they might have different names, depending on the medium, these types of stories are just as likely to appear on a TV screen, radio station, or Internet website, serving readers, listeners, and viewers in much the same way as they do newspaper readers: by adding depth, humanity, color, and entertainment to the news of the day.

The Past Present and Future of Technology Inventory Control Essay

The Past Present and Future of Technology Inventory Control - Essay Example Technology evolved to the second generation, which included electronic computers for scientific and numerical calculations. These computers were now convenient, reliable and could store much information. Standard packages emerged for inventory control applications, making it easy to sort, analyze, and process data. The result was reduction in prices of goods and services leading to increased transactions and hence demanding more efficient and faster equipment. The third generation was online network databases that enabled online transaction processing (Gray 4). This era enabled a person to run many concurrent transactions and many users shared one database. Many programs developed in this era are still useful today in inventory control (Chief Supply Chain Officer Insights 13). The fourth generation inventory control devices were relational databases that enabled data definition, data navigation, and data manipulation (Gray 5). It enabled the capturing of inputs and outputs of merchandise to the user device. The programs in this generation are convenient even in today’s life for client server computing. The devices that followed emerged in the year 1995 and were multimedia databases that still exist in today’s life (Gray 6). In complex objects, the database made it possible to search, compare, and manipulate the data. This database could store and retrieve information and it made inventory control easy by adding on time and time interval data types. In the present, computer hardware has enabled the evolution of inventory control from manual and paper based processing to information search engines. The inventory control devices used in the present include barcode scanners to read every barcode in every item, mobile computers to capture data like the batch numbers and the inventory software for tracking the inventory sales

In recent years, honeybee colonies have been experiencing Colony Essay

In recent years, honeybee colonies have been experiencing Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD). Given the key role of honeybees - Essay Example The honey bees that leave for the forage largely do not return back to their hives and this is especially witnessed to a large extent with migratory bees which are trucked from one country to another for pollination purposes. Scientists have begun to unravel the causes behind this phenomenon as it is a major source of income for the beekeepers and also the farmers depend on it for crop production (Johnson, 2010). In the earlier times a 10 percent loss in honey bee population in a season was considered to be normal, which then rose to 30 percent due to infection by parasitic mites and beginning from 2006 many commercial beekeepers have reported a loss of 30 to 90 percent average colony loss with the onset of CDD. Even the surviving colonies showed weak viability. Though a majority of the losses have been attributed to known causes about 25% of the loss is estimated to have occurred due to CCD. These losses of colonies occur throughout the year and are not seasonal. The major symptoms of this condition are the rapid loss of adult bee workers without any accumulation of dead bees in the hive which is an indication that these bees are not retuning back to the hive that is highly unusual in case of the bee population. These adult bees leave behind their brood which is generally inactive. In addition, there is also the presence of food stores that includes both honey and bee bread. The queen bee is generally present and actively laying eggs (Johnson, 2010; Colony Collapse Disorder, n.d). In case of actively collapsing bee colonies, only an insufficient workforce of young adult bees will be present and though the queen is present the population does not show an inclination to consume food (Colony Collapse Disorder, n.d). Research carried out to determine the causative factors for this condition has found out that CCD could be a syndrome which is not caused by any one particular factor but a combination of several factors (multifactorial). Some of the major possible fa ctors that threaten the bee population are viruses, parasites and microbes, pesticides, antibiotics, miticides, radiations, genetically modified crops and climatic and other environmental changes (Johnson, 2010; Colony Collapse Disorder, n.d). The USDA’s Agriculture Research Service, the Pennsylvania State University and several other universities are conducting most of the current research to unravel the cause of this phenomenon (Johnson, 2010). A recent study carried out by the Washington State University has shown that CCD could be caused due to a combination of toxic chemicals and pathogens present in honeycombs as the bees present in such combs had reduced longevity (Gutierrez, 2010). Of these, chronic exposures to pesticides, miticides and antibiotics have been shown to have an impact on the immune system of the honey bees and hence on their response to infection. In addition, bees have a reduced number of genes which offer resistance to various diseases and toxins thus making the bee population more vulnerable to such problems (Colony Collapse Disorder, n.d). These toxic chemicals are believed to cause the colony to collapse either by themselves or by combining with each other, which would result in increased toxicity to the hive. In addition scientists are also studying the combinatory effects

Introduction to Special Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Introduction to Special Education - Essay Example These include reading disability, problems with expressive language, receptive language, poor hand-eye coordination, visual confusion, problems with socialization, behavioural difficulties, possible depression, social isolation, difficulties in visual motor skills, and over all learning disabilities. Each of these conditions would lead to disparate variety of educational needs for the student, and it seems none of these can be addressed at home, given the fact that Juan's mother is suffering from severe depression, and she needs Juan's help for her own care. Although his socialization, visual motor skills, and language had not developed, there is no help, supervision, or guidance at home that can help him improve. As is known, special education centres on a process of evaluation of Juan's development of skills in this area; it seems Juan is eligible for an individualized education programme. Examining the legal criteria for eligibility to be included in a special education programme, it must be stated that Juan satisfies the following criteria which qualifies him to be a child with disability. Juan is an individual between ages 3 to 22. He may have mental retardation, which has not been clearly mentioned in this case history. He has definitely established speech and language imp airment. Although he is not blind, he has visual impairment. Although there is no indication in the history about any serious emotional disturbance, from the case it is apparent that he might as well have depression. His socialization skills might have been lacking due to this. He was observed to be a loner in the class without any friends. His reticence in the class is pointing to this fact with stronger possibility. This may be due to his basic learning possibility, but a mental health assessment is necessary to rule out whether this is a mental health problem or a result of emotional disturbance. Fortunately, he does not have any orthopedic impairment. These disabilities are affecting Juan's academic performance. It appears from the very beginning, Juan was suffering from such problems, and these were affecting his learning and academic performance. Juan had severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability in oral expression, listening comprehension, written expression, basic reading skills, reading comprehension (Wolff Heller et al., 1996). It appeared that his mathematical calculation and mathematical reasoning was just age-appropriate. Assessing the student's needs and designing the modifications in instructions form the basis of special education. When Juan has been diagnosed with learning disability, he will need special education services, and it can also be expected that scientifically validated interventions against his problems in the rural primary school was not able to result in an expected positive response. This also indicates presence of some unique and individualized learning needs. This analysis does not point to the presumptive cause of this disability. Therefore, a comprehensive evaluation of the cognitive abilities, processes, and deficits in Juan must be available before a final decision. This would also need to include an assessment and correlation with the academic achievements and the forms of psychosocial functioning. His ability has been attempted to be characterised by the estimates of his IQ. For the reference of this discussion, his WISC-III profile indicated his verbal IQ to be 82 and the

Pros and Cons of Private Schooling Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Pros and Cons of Private Schooling - Essay Example This paper analyzes the pros and cons of private schooling as explained in four articles, links to which are given in the references section. Private schools have conventionally played a very important role in promoting and strengthening UK’s economy despite being lesser in number as compared to the public schools. There is a lot of evidence to suggest that individuals educated in private schools gain a lot of economic advantages in their professional career. They get better jobs and are employed at higher salaries than the graduates of public schools, though there is little know-how about the way the social and economic influence of the private schooling has surfaced. In their paper, Green et al (2010) have provided empirical evidence for the degree of change experienced in the education differentials and school wages over the period of time. The reasons why pupils educated in private schools have more advantages than those educated in public schools include but are not limit ed to substantive increase in the number of resources, increased emphasis of the private schools upon the academic achievement of students through internal transformation, and increased fee amounts that parents do not have problem with paying given the widespread knowledge economy and increase in the number of women participating in the labor force. ... (Green et al, 2010). The authors conclude that half of the increase in salary differential between the graduates of private and public schools is because of the better qualifications of the former than the latter. Homeschool Academy (2007) discusses a number of advantages of the private schools. The academic performance of private school students is much better than that of the public school students. One of the several reasons behind this is increased parental involvement in the child education in private schools. Private schools are characterized by freedom from the constraints imposed by the government over public schools. Private schools are free to select core academic subjects for teaching. They do not have to bear the pressure of political advocacy groups while designing the curriculum for their students. Because of their increased freedom, private schools are better able to enforce discipline within the classroom as well as in the campus. They are greatly facilitated by the p arents of the students in implementing discipline in the schools because parents are as concerned about making the private school education a success as the school administrators and owners themselves are. However, private schools still have to overcome the challenges of age segregation in classrooms and the inflexibility of teachers with respect to their speed of teaching. NCSPE (n.d.) explains why private schools are so controversial. Private schools provide the families with a way to retreat from their responsibilities towards the society as citizens and also promote inequality. The fundamental cause of injustice is the use of public dollars by private schools that are potentially

Quiz Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Quiz - Assignment Example Hugh’s family had houseboys to facilitate them. Hugh’s family was part of exotic parties on numerous occasions and there were more chances that hugh’s could come across a famous personality rather the David. While the only problem he had to face initially was of shelter. Although, Hugh mentioned that where I come from, finding a shelter is a problem that an average might confidently leave it to his parents. It was just something that came with having a mom and dad. Q-Catton employs both methods of organizations, subject by subject and point by point, where in the essay does this switch occur( paragraph #)? Why does point by point work better at this point in essay? According to my comprehension the switch occurs in the 12th paragraph where the write compares the both the warriors in a single paragraph based on their single aspect of strength and valor. The switch was mandatory for the comparison between the in terms of common aspects which both

Acc#5 Farm Financial Standards Council Model Case Essay

Acc#5 Farm Financial Standards Council Model Case - Essay Example GM has adopted traditional cost allocation system wherein the overheads are arbitrarily allocated to the products on the basis of the labor or machine hours. It produces only one product i.e. the corvette and as such apportionment of overhead costs may not be such a big problem except for the fluctuations of production volumes which may distort the contribution margin figures. John & Mary Farmer on the other hand produce two products namely: corn and soybean that too in two farms, for which there are a variety of cost drivers which have to be identified to diversified activities to estimate the differences in cost of production between farms and overall profitability between commodities produced in different years. While adopting traditional cost allocation system, as in GM, may be easier for accounting purposes, it actually does not serve the purpose of arriving at a specific cost structure especially when the direct labor component is in small proportion in the total production process owing to the present automation taking place even in the farming sector. 1. Overheads would have been charged according to the production volumes which may fluctuate from time to time. Hence, the accurate per unit contribution margin which is the basis for competitive managerial decisions in today’s world would be misguiding. 3. The products produced in the case study are corn and soybean that too in different fields of which few are owned by the firm and the others are taken on lease. With such diversified methodology of tie ups with different parties, if ABC is not undertaken, the differences in the production would not be useful in providing effective strategy to minimize risk associated with the business and enhance profitability. 4. With the growing mechanization even in the farm sector, the importance of direct expenses is shrunk day by day

Quiz Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Quiz - Assignment Example Hugh’s family had houseboys to facilitate them. Hugh’s family was part of exotic parties on numerous occasions and there were more chances that hugh’s could come across a famous personality rather the David. While the only problem he had to face initially was of shelter. Although, Hugh mentioned that where I come from, finding a shelter is a problem that an average might confidently leave it to his parents. It was just something that came with having a mom and dad. Q-Catton employs both methods of organizations, subject by subject and point by point, where in the essay does this switch occur( paragraph #)? Why does point by point work better at this point in essay? According to my comprehension the switch occurs in the 12th paragraph where the write compares the both the warriors in a single paragraph based on their single aspect of strength and valor. The switch was mandatory for the comparison between the in terms of common aspects which both

Leiningen Essy Essay Example for Free

Leiningen Essy Essay Throughout the ages, man has constantly been forced to battle with nature. Leiningen versus the Ants by Carl Stephenson is about a landowner, Leiningen, in Brazil who is warned by a Brazilian official that an army, ten miles long and two miles wide, of ants is headed straight for his plantation and are expected to reach his plantation in two days at the latest. But Leiningen believes that the Brazilian official is pulling his leg when he advises him to evacuate the plantation because of ants. Against all odds, Leiningen is able to defeat a twenty square mile army of ants by ossessing leadership, confidence, and intelligence. One of the key reasons that Leiningen is able to defeat the army of ants is his great leadership skill because with a great leader who everyone trusts in, the group or army will be united as one and work as one. After Leiningen has been informed of the ants that are approaching his plantation, Leiningen prepares for the battle by moving the women and children and cattle to safety. The women and children, then the herds of cattle, were escorted by peons on rafts over the river, to remain on the other side in absolute safety (2). Leiningen is keeping the people and animals that cannot fght safe, which demonstrates his leadership and control over the plantation and everything living there while also illustrating his care for the women, children, and cattle. After the battle has begun, Leiningen is forced to make quick decisions, including the decision to drop a match into the petrol-filled ditch. Everyone back from the ditch! roared Leiningen. The men rushed away, without the slightest idea of his plan(9). Leiningens men show great obedience to Leiningen when they rush way from the ditch without details of his plan demonstrating that Leiningen is a reliable leader who they can trust. Finally, Leiningen displays that he is a respected leader who will put his own life at risk to save those of his men. Listen, lads! he shouted. Theres still a chance to save our lives†by flooding the plantation from the river. Well, Im not going to let you try it; if I did Id be worse than one of those ants. No, I called the tune, and now Im going to pay the piper(11). There are few leaders in todays society, or even in history, that would put their own life at risk nstead of the life of one of their men. Leiningen shows absolutely incredible leadership in this instance where he is basically willing to give his life for the lives of his men. Leadership played a key role in Leiningens success because Leiningen was able to lead his men and bring them together as one unit as oppose to individuals working by themselves. In addition to leadership, Leiningen possesses a vital element of success, confidence. Leiningen believed that he could defeat the ants, which gave Leiningen and his men confidence in every precaution, and action they were taking in he steps towards defeating the ants. Leiningen had made every precaution his mind could think of, And now he was sure he would prove more than a match for the irresistible ants(2). Leiningen believes that he will defeat the ants due to the great precaution that he has taken to stop them. By believing that his precautions would be successful, Leiningen illustrates confidence not only in him, but also in his actions. Speaking to the Brazilian officer about the claim he had made about the ants being an act of God, Leiningen replies, Act of God, my eye! Anyway, Im not an old woman; only needs confidence in what he has done, but also in what he is capable of doing. Leiningen demonstrates that he has confidence in his capability to hold off the ants and defeat them. In the same reply to the Brazilian officer who described to Leiningen the vastness and power of the ant army, Leiningen states, l use my intelligence, old man. With me, the brain isnt a second blindgut; I know what its there for(l). Again Leiningen illustrates confidence that he will have no problem holding off the ants simply with his intelligence. Leiningens success can be greatly attributed to his characteristic of confidence because believing that he was able to defeat the ants caused him to strive towards that goal and become successful. Intelligence is more than Just having smarts; it is knowing how to apply those smarts to real-life situations. Leiningen is a man with great intelligence who is able to use his intelligence, along with leadership and confidence, to aid in his defeat of the vast army of ants.

Structural and Functional Properties of Tendons

Structural and Functional Properties of Tendons Chapter One Literature Review 1.0 Introduction Tendons are dynamic structures; their extracellular matrices are continuously being synthesised and broken down over the course of an individual’s lifetime. The macromolecules, namely collagen, proteoglycans, hyaluronan and the non-collagenous proteins form the extracellular matrix of tendons. In normal tendon exists a fine balance between the synthesis and degradation of these macromolecules resulting in a strong healthy tendon. It is evident that damage to tendons, such as in overuse tendinopathy results in changes to the levels and types of macromolecules present in tendon with decreased levels of collagen and increased levels of proteoglycans, hyaluronan and non-collagenous proteins, causing a weakened tendon that is prone to rupture. These degenerative features have thus far been partially characterised. By identifying the levels and various types of macromolecules present in normal tendons and tendons exhibiting overuse tendinopathy an understanding of the basis of the condition can be determined and possible ways of preventing or ameliorating tendon degeneration can be considered. The terms overuse tendinopathy and pathological tendon will be used interchangeably throughout this study. This literature review will attempt to define and characterise the structural and functional properties of tendon and will discuss the current literature regarding the levels, types, synthesis and catabolism of macromolecules present in the extracellular matrix of tendons and also attempt to define and characterise the pathological aspects of overuse tendinopathies. Chapter Two of this thesis will dictate the materials and methodology used in these studies. Chapters Three, Four and Five will present the results of this thesis. Finally, chapter Six will include the discussion and discuss any limitations and future considerations. 1.1 Synovial Joint Joints are articulations found between adjacent parts of bone that allow controlled frictionless movement (for review see; Mankin Radin, 1997). In the human body there are three different types of joints and these are grouped according to the type of movement they make. They include the freely movable joints (synovial joints; i.e., most joints of the extremities such as the knee joint), slightly movable (cartilaginous joints; i.e., the vertebrae and ribs) and those that are immovable (fibrous joints; i.e., the skull). The majority of the joints found in the human body are synovial joints (for review see; Mankin Radin, 1997). There are six different types of synovial joints including the ball-and-socket joints, hinge joints, saddle joint, pivot joint, gliding joints and condyloid joints. A synovial joint contains a joint cavity that is enclosed by a fibrous capsule linking the adjoining bones. This joint capsule is lined by a synovial membrane that secretes a lubricating and nutritious fluid called synovial fluid that is rich in albumin and hyaluronan. The surface of each bone is typically covered with articular hyaline cartilage or in some circumstances fibrocartilage. In addition, the joint capsule is supported by accessory structures such as tendons and ligaments, which provide stability to the synovial joint (Sledge et al., 2001). 1.1.1 Articular Cartilage Articular cartilage covers the adjoining ends of bones in joints and has a white colour (for review see; Mankin Radin, 1997). It is a tissue that is devoid of blood and nerves and provides a wear resistant surface with low frictional properties for the joint and attains its nutrients via diffusion from the synovium into the synovial fluid (for review see; Mankin Radin, 1997). Furthermore, articular cartilage is resilient and flexible. This allows articular cartilage to withstand large compressive and tensile forces as well as allowing it to distribute load on subchondral bone during joint loading (Kempson, 1980) even though it is only a few millimetres thick (Hardingham, 1998). Its biomechanical properties are dependent on the structural composition of the extracellular matrix, which is comprised of water (70-80%), collagens (predominantly Type II collagen), proteoglycans (predominantly aggrecan) and non-collagenous proteins (Kuettner et al., 1991; Poole, 1997). The predominant cell type present in articular cartilage is called the chondrocyte. These cells are responsible for the maintenance, synthesis and degradation of all the extracellular matrix components (Kuettner et al., 1991; Buckwalter Mankin, 1998). Mature articular cartilage can be divided up into four zones including the superficial (tangential) zone, the middle (transitional) zone, the deep (radial) zone and the zone of calcified cartilage (Huber et al., 2000). The organisation and composition as well as mechanical properties of the extracellular matrix varies within these zones. The deeper zones have high proteoglycan levels and low cellularity whereas the more superficial zones contain low proteoglycan levels and increased cellularity (Aydelotte et al., 1988; Buckwalter Mankin, 1998). 1.1.2 Joint Capsule and Ligament The joint capsule is a fibrous connective tissue that is attached to the skeletal parts of a joint beyond their articular surfaces. The principal function of the joint capsule is to seal the joint space and to supply stability by limiting movement (for review see; Mankin Radin, 1997). Most joint capsules are strengthened by ligaments. Ligaments act together with the joint capsule and the peri-articular muscles to provide stability to the joint preventing excessive movements. They permit free movements when lax, but can stop unwanted movements when tight by virtue of their high tensile strength. Occasionally joint capsules are strengthened by tendons, such as the extensor tendon in the finger joint. The joint capsule and ligaments proceed to hold the bones together and to guide and limit joint movements. Ligaments attach one bone with another bone and have a limited vascular and neural supply which enable them to repair relatively well after damage (Bray et al., 1990). The knee joint is a good example of different types of ligaments. The medial collateral ligament fuses with the joint capsule, and the cruciate ligaments and the lateral collateral ligament, which are both completely independent of the joint capsule. 1.1.3 Synovial Membrane The synovial membrane (synovium) lines the non-articular surfaces of a joint such as the joint capsule and ligaments, and is responsible for secreting and absorbing synovial fluid, which contains hyaluronan (Mason et al., 1999). Synovial fluid lubricates the joint and provides at least partly for the nutrition of articular cartilage, invertebral discs and menisci. The synovial extracellular matrix acts as a scaffolding to support synoviocytes and plays an important role in cell migration and differentiation. It is mostly composed of collagen particularly Type III collagen, with smaller amounts of proteoglycans such as decorin and biglycan (Mason et al., 1999), non-collagenous proteins such as fibronectin, elastin and lamina, hyaluronic acid as well as lipids, serum proteins and electrolytes (Hirohata Kobayashi, 1964). The synovial membrane has only been detected in vertebrate animals (Henderson Edwards, 1987). Furthermore, synovial tissue is not arranged into discrete layers, but rather represents a continuum from surface to deep zones. The extracellular matrix of the synovial membrane varies in composition from its surface to its deep zones (Hirohata Kobayashi, 1964). 1.1.4 Tendon Tendons are dense fibrous connective tissues found between muscles and bones (for review see; Benjamin Ralphs, 1997). The primary role of tendon is to absorb and transmit force generated by muscle to the bone to provide movement at a joint. In addition tendons operate as a buffer by absorbing forces to limit muscle damage. Each individual muscle has two tendons, one that is proximal and the other distal. The attachment of the proximal tendon of a muscle to bone is called a muscle origin and that of the distal tendon an insertion. A normal tendon has a bright white colour and a fibroelastic texture and enables resistance to mechanical forces. Tendons come in many shapes and this is most likely due to their function, they can be round or oval in cross section or they can come in the form of flattened sheets, fan shaped, ribbon shaped or cylindrical in shape (for review see; Benjamin Ralphs, 1997). In a muscle like the quadriceps which creates strong forces the tendons are short and broad, while those that are involved in more delicate movements like the finger flexors, long and thin tendons are present (Kannus, 2000). Tendons are arranged in a hierarchical fashion (see Figure 1.1). A group of collagen fibres form a primary fibre bundle or subfascicle; this is the basic unit of tendon. A group of subfascicles form secondary bundles or fascicles, which form tertiary bundles constituting the tendon as a whole. The primary, secondary and tertiary bundles are encased in a thin connective tissue reticulum called the endotenon (Elliott, 1965; Kastelic et al., 1978; Rowe, 1985). The endotenon carries blood vessels, nerves and lymphatics to deeper areas of the tendon (Elliott, 1965; Hess et al., 1989). The whole tendon is surrounded by an epitenon, which is a dense fibrillar network of collagen (Jozsa et al., 1991). The epitenon is contiguous with the endotenon and like the endotenon is rich in blood vessels, nerves and lymphatics (Hess et al., 1989). Many tendons are surrounded by a connective tissue called the paratenon. Paratenon allows free movement of the tendon against the surrounding tissues (Schatzker Branemark, 1969; Hess et al., 1989). The myotendinous junction is the site of union with a muscle, and the osteotendinous junction is the site of union with a bone (Kannus, 2000). In tendon, blood vessels represent between 1-2% of the entire extracellular matrix (Lang, 1960; Lang, 1963). Some blood vessels may originate from the perimysium at the musculotendinous junction and blood vessels from the osteotendinous junction (Schatzker Branemark, 1969; Carr Norris, 1989; Clark et al., 2000). At rest, rabbit tendons have been shown to have blood flow of around one-third that of muscle, and it is known that blood flow in tendon increases with exercise and during healing in animals (Backman et al., 1991). The oxygen consumption of tendons is 7.5 times lower than that of skeletal muscles (Vailas et al., 1978). 1.1.5 Tendon Extracellular Matrix The major cell type present in tendon is the fibroblast (also known as tenocytes; Ross et al., 1989; Schweitzer et al., 2001; Salingcarnboriboon et al., 2003), which are embedded within an extracellular matrix (see Figure 1.2). These cells are sparsely distributed, comprising only 5% of the dry weight of adult tendon (Ross et al., 1989; Schweitzer et al., 2001; Salingcarnboriboon et al., 2003). These cells lie in longitudinal rows and have many cell extensions that extend into the extracellular matrix (McNeilly et al., 1996). Fibroblasts are responsible for the synthesis and degradation of all the macromolecular components that make up the extracellular matrix of tendon, including the most abundant macromolecule present in tendon, collagen, as well as proteoglycans, hyaluronan and non-collagenous proteins (Vogel Heinegard, 1985; Curwin, 1997; O’Brien, 1997). The extracellular matrix is made up of parallel bundles of collagen aligned longitudinally (60-85% of tendon dry weight) associated with elastin fibres which constitutes approximately 1-2% of the dry weight of tendon (Tipton et al., 1975; Hess et al., 1989; Jozsa et al., 1989; Curwin, 1997; Kirkendall Garrett, 1997; O’Brien, 1997). Tendon consists of 55-70% water, most of which is associated with proteoglycans in the extracellular matrix (Elliott, 1965; Vogel, 1977; Merrilees Flint, 1980; Riley et al., 1994b; Vogel Meyers, 1999). The proteoglycan content of tendons is approximately 1% of dry weight of tendons (O’Brien, 1997).Water and proteoglycans have important lubricating and spacing roles in tendons that allow collagen fibres to glide over one another (Amiel et al., 1984). The structure, composition and the organisation of the tendon matrix is crucial for the physical properties that tendons posses (Riley, 2004). The collagen component gives tendon its great tensile strength (Scott, 2003) whereas it is the proteoglycan component of the tendon matrix that enables tendons to withstand compressive load (Schonherr et al., 1995), while elastin fibres increase tendon extensibility (Scott, 2003). 1.1.6 Tendon cells The cell population of tendon has so far been poorly characterised (for review see; Riley, 2000), the majority of tendon cells have the appearance of fibroblasts (also known as tenocytes) and constitute about 90-95% of the cells present in tendon (Ross et al., 1989; Schweitzer et al., 2001; Salingcarnboriboon et al., 2003). The remaining 5% to 10% of cells present in tendon are chondrocyte-like cells (fibrochondrocytes), which are mostly present in the fibrocartilaginous regions of tendon where tendon attaches to bone. Also present in tendon are some mast cells, capillary endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells and nerve cells (Hess et al., 1989; Jozsa Kannus, 1997). Fibrocartilage cells are large and have an oval shape and they are often packed with intermediate filaments (Merrilees Flint, 1980; Ralphs et al., 1991). Tendon cells are linked to one another via gap junctions (McNeilly et al., 1996; Ralphs et al., 1998), allowing cell-to-cell interactions (McNeilly et al., 1996). Fibroblasts have a branched cytoplasm surrounding an elliptical, speckled nucleus. The rough endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus are well developed with few mitochondria in the cytoplasm (Ippolito et al., 1980; Moore De Beaux, 1987). Like other connective tissue cells, fibroblasts are derived from mesenchyme. It is believed that in tendon there are a small number of mesenchymal stem cells that have the ability to differentiate into chondrogenic, osteogenic and adipogenic cells if the conditions allow (Salingcarnboriboon et al., 2003). Tendons have been shown to respond to mechanical load by modifying their extracellular matrix (Banes et al., 1988; Ehlers Vogel, 1998; Buchanan Marsh, 2002; Lavagnino Arnoczky, 2005). Tendon cells receive their vascular supply from the surrounding paratenon. Tendons were once considered almost static and unable to participate in repair. However, the activity of tendon cells has been shown to be active throughout an individual’s life as they express various matrix components (Chard et al., 1987; Ireland et al., 2001; Riley et al., 2002). Regional differences in cell morphology and activity exists in tendons, synovial-like cells that are found in the endotenon and epitenon surround the main fibre bundles (Banes et al., 1988). A greater proliferative capacity and a different matrix synthetic activity is characteristic of these synovial-like cells compared to the fibroblasts within the fibres, and are the first cells to respond following acute tendon injury (Gelberman et al., 1986; Banes et al., 1988; Garner et al., 1989; Gelberman et al., 1991; Khan et al., 1996b). Tendon Extracellular Matrix Macromolecules The following section will discuss the major extracellular matrix proteins and their roles in tendon. This will include the major constituent of tendon, collagen, the small and large proteoglycans and the non-collagenous proteins as well as hyaluronan. This section will also discuss the synthesis of collagens, proteoglycans and hyaluronan. 1.2.1 Collagens Collagen is the most copious protein present in the extracellular matrix of connective tissues and accounts for approximately 90% of the total protein of tendons, or 65% to 75% of the dry weight of tendons (von der Mark, 1981; O’Brien, 1992). There are currently 28 different collagen types (numbered I-XXVIII) present in vertebrates with at least 42 different alpha chains (Veit et al., 2006) with this number continuing to mount (Brown Timpl, 1995; Aumailley Gayraud, 1998). Collagen molecules can be defined as an extracellular protein that contains at least one triple helical domain (van der Rest Bruckner, 1993). Collagen provides the tendon with its structural integrity as well as assisting in various physiological functions. Collagen consists of three polypeptide alpha chains, which combine to form a homotrimer (three identical alpha chains) or a heterotrimer (two or three different alpha chains). Covalent bonds known as collagen cross-links develop between individual collagen molecules in a collagen fibre (Eyre et al., 1984; Bailey et al., 1998; Bailey, 2001; Brady Robins, 2001). The collagen arrangement gives tendon its great tensile strength. Cross-links are formed from a pathway of different chemical reactions that result in divalent cross-links that join two polypeptide chains, to multivalent, i.e. tri- or even tetravalent, cross-links (Bailey Lapiere, 1973; Eyre et al., 1984). These cross-links come about from enzymatic modification of lysine or hydroxylysine residues by the copper-dependent enzyme lysine oxidase (Robins, 1988). Collagens are divided into two subgroups, the fibrillar and non-fibrillar collagens. Non-fibrillar collagens can be further divided into seven subfamilies including microfibril collagens, fibril-associated collagens with interrupted helices (FACIT) collagens, network collagens, MULTIPLEXIN collagens (proteins with multiple triple helix domains and interruptions), basement membrane-associated collagens, transmembrane-associated collagens and epithelium-associated collagens (von der Mark, 1999). The non-fibrillar collagens present in tendon include Types IV, VI, IX, X, XII and XIV (von der Mark, 1999). The fibrillar collagens present in tendon include, Types I, II, III, V and XI (Kielty et al., 1993; Kadler et al., 1996; Fukuta et al., 1998; von der Mark, 1999). The fibrillar collagens contain a continuous triple helix domain, 300 nm in length, capable of undergoing the staggered, lateral associations required to form fibrils (Mayne, 1997). The resulting fibrils provide the structural support for tissues. All the fibril-forming collagens have a similar structure and size, being composed of a large, continuous central triple-helical domain (COL1) of approximately 1000 amino-acid residues Collagen Type Structure type Distribution Function I Fibril forming Occurs in most tissues, tendon, bone, skin etc Main component of tendon, skin, bone, dentin, cartilage, ligament etc II Fibril forming Hyaline cartilage, invertebral disc Restricted to fibrocartilage; forms less-organised meshwork III Fibril forming Vessels, kidney, liver, skin, tendon Normally restricted to endotenon; forms smaller less organised fibrils IV Forms meshwork Basement membranes, tendon Basement membrane of tendon blood vessels V Fibril forming Skin, bone Core of Type I collagen fibril forms template for fibrillogenesis VI Beaded filaments Vessels, skin, intervertebral disc Cell associated found in seams between fibrils VII Epithelial-associated Dermoepidermal junction Forms anchoring fibrils in the skin VIII Microfibril Descements membrane in the cornea Forms a lattice IX FACIT Hyaline cartilage, vitreous humour, tendon Cell and matrix interactions with Type II collagen fibril surface X Forms meshwork Growth plate, tendon Restricted to insertion fibrocartilage XI Fibril forming Hyaline cartilage Core of Type II collagen fibril forms template for fibrillogenesis XII FACIT Embryonic tendon and skin, periodontal ligament Mediates cell/matrix interactions with Type I collagen fibril surface XIII Transmembrane Endothelial cells Adhesion of cells to basement membranes XIV FACIT Foetal skin, tendon Mediates cell/matrix interactions with Type I collagen fibril surface XV Multiplexin Blood vessels Stabilizes skeletal muscle cells and microvessels XVI FACIT Skin, Cartilage XVII Transmembrane Skin, cornea, lung Connects epithelial cells to the matrix XVIII Multiplexin Endothelial cells, liver, eye Needed for normal development of the eye XIX FACIT Basement membranes Forms radially distributed aggregates XX FACIT Corneal epithelium, skin, cartilage and tendon Binds to collagen fibrils XXI FACIT Many tissues Matrix assembly of vascular networks in blood vessel formation XXII Fibril forming Tissue junctions Interacts with components of microfibrils XXIII Transmembrane Metastatic tumour cells, heart retina Cell adhesion, Binds to heparin XXIV Fibril forming Expressed in tissues containing Type I collagen Developing bone and cornea Regulating Type I collagen fibrillogenesis XXV Transmembrane Neurons May play a role in adherens junctions between neurons XVI Testis and ovary of adult tissues Development of the reproductive tissues XVII Fibril forming Cartilage, ear, eye and lung Unknown XVIII Basement membranes around Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system. Unknown flanked by a variable amino-terminal domain of about 50-520 amino acid residues and a highly conserved non-triple-helical carboxyl-terminal domain of about 250 amino acid residues (for reviews see; Kielty et al., 1993; Fichard et al., 1995; Pihlajaniemi Rehn, 1995; Prockop Kivirikko, 1995; Bateman et al., 1996). The amino- and carboxyl-terminal extensions are commonly referred to as amino- and carboxyl- propeptides, respectively. The C-propeptide is called the NC1 domain, whereas the amino-propeptide is divided into sub-domains. The first is a short sequence (NC2) that links the major triple helix to the minor one (COL2) and a globular amino-terminal end (NC3) that shows structural and splicing variations. Collagen Types II, IX, X and XI (Fukuta et al., 1998) are present at specific sites within the fibrocartilage region of tendon, found at the bone insertion and where the tendon is subjected to shear forces or compression (Fukuta et al., 1998; Waggett et al., 1998). Collagen Types II, IX, X and XI were once thought to occur only in cartilage (Visconti et al., 1996; Fukuta et al., 1998; Riley, 2000). It has now been shown that these collagens are found in the fibrocartilaginous regions of tendon, which wraps under bone. Their presumed function is to help resist compression and shear forces at these sites (Visconti et al., 1996; Fukuta et al., 1998; Waggett et al., 1998). Collagen also plays an important role in attaching tendons to bone. Where the tendon attaches to bone, tendons commonly widen and give way to fibrocartilage, a transformation where the aligned fibres originating from the tendon are separated by other collagen fibres arranged in a three dimensional network surrounding rounded cells (Liu et al., 1995). This arrangement helps to transmit tensile forces onto a broad area and reduces the chance of failure under excessive loading. The following review will focus on the collagens that are known to exist in tendon; this includes collagen Types I-VI, IX-XII and XIV. 1.2.1.1 Type I Collagen Type I collagen is the predominant and most studied collagen type present in the extracellular matrix of tendon, ligament and bone representing approximately 95% of the total collagen content or 60% of the tendon dry weight (Evans Barbenel, 1975; von der Mark, 1981; Riley et al., 1994b; Rufai et al., 1995). It is synthesized by a number of cell types such as fibroblasts, osteocytes and odontoblasts. Type I collagen consists of two ÃŽ ±1(I) chains and a shorter ÃŽ ±2(I) chain (Kielty et al., 1993), these two chains are products of separate genes and are not a posttranslational modification of a single molecule (for review see; Kivirikko Prockop, 1995). The two ÃŽ ±1(I) and one ÃŽ ±2(I) chains of a monomer of Type I collagen are primarily comprised of approximately 338  repeating tripeptide sequences of Gly-X-Y in which X is frequently proline and Y is frequently hydroxyproline (OHPr). The ends of the ÃŽ ±1(I) and one ÃŽ ±2(I) chains consist of short telopeptides of between 11-26 amino acids per chain. In longitudinal sections, the monomers are arranged in fibrils in a head-to-head-to-tail orientation. Each Type I collagen molecule consists of a long central helical region with a short non-helical domain on both the amino- and carboxyl-terminal ends. In tendon, the Type I collagen-containing fibril, organized into fibres (fibril bundles), is the major element responsible for structure stabilization and the mechanical attributes of this tissue. The fibril contains collagen molecules assembled into a quarter-staggered array, and this striated fibril has a 67 nm periodicity (for review see; Kadler et al., 1996; Orgel et al., 2006). Each alpha chain consists of a repeating triplet of glycine and two other amino acids marked as (Gly-X-Y)n. It is the glycine residues located in every third position that makes it possible for the three alpha chains to coil around the other. It has a molecular weight of 290 kDa. When viewing collagen fibrils under the light microscope they have a crimped appearance, during tendon loading the crimp stretches and the fibrils become aligned, and after loading the crimp will reappear, this is an important elastic component that tendon possesses (O’Brien, 1992). The Type I collagen ÃŽ ± chains contain approximately 290 residues of OHPr per molecule. Proline and OHPr constitute 20% to 25% of all amino acid residues of Type I collagen. The parallel arranged bundles formed by the Type I collagen fibrils gives tissues a high tensile strength with limited elasticity, and therefore is suitable for force transmission. The Type I collagen molecule has the ability to form microfibrils (filaments) as well as larger units of the fibrils or fibres (for review see; Kivirikko Prockop, 1995). The diameter of the collagen fibril is usually between 20 nm and 150 nm but can range up to 300 nm, this depends on the stage of development (Dyer Enna, 1976; Jozsa et al., 1984; Fleischmajer et al., 1988). 1.2.1.2 Type II Collagen The homotrimeric Type II collagen molecule was first discovered in cartilage by Miller and Matukas in 1969 who extracted collagen from cartilage in an experiment that involved pepsin digestion. Type II collagen, although most commonly found in articular and hyaline cartilage is also expressed in tendon particularly around the fibrocartilaginous region and consists of three identical ÃŽ ±1(II) chains (Eyre et al., 1992) which forms a meshwork structure that gives Type II collagen the ability to entrap the negatively charged proteoglycan molecules, thereby resisting the swelling pressure of proteoglycans. Each Type II collagen chain has a molecular weight of approximately 95 kDa. The entire collagen Type II molecule is shaped like a thin rod and is 300 nm long and 1.5 nm wide and has a total combined molecular weight of 295 kDa. This molecule is essential in connective tissues that are subjected to compression such as tendon and articular cartilage. Type II collagen molecules consists of a long central helical region flanked at its amino- and carboxyl-terminus by short non-helical regions termed amino and carboxyl telopeptides (Eyre et al., 1992). As with all fibrillar collagens, Type II collagen molecules are arranged in a quarter-staggered array to form collagen fibrils. Lateral associations of these collagen fibrils forms collagen fibres (Mayne, 1997). In tendon, collagen Types IX and XI as well as the proteoglycans decorin, fibromodulin and lumican inhibit collagen Type II fibril formation reducing fibril thickness (Vogel et al., 1984; Hedbom Heinegard, 1989; Hedbom Heinegard, 1993). 1.2.1.3 Type III Collagen Type III collagen is the second most abundant collagen present in tendon, representing up to 10% of the total collagen content in various tendons (Hanson Bentley, 1983; Riley et al., 1994b). Type III collagen is a thin collagen fibre consisting of three ÃŽ ±1(III) chains with a molecular weight of 290 kDa. In tendon most Type III collagen is found in the endotenon and epitenon (Duance et al., 1977), and is also found in between Type I collagen fibril bundles in aging tendons and at the insertion (Kumagai et al., 1994). It can also be found in skin, blood vessels, ligament and internal organs such as the gastro-intestinal tract but is not found in bone (Epstein Munderloh, 1978; McCullagh et al., 1980; Amiel et al., 1984). It strengthens the walls of hollow structures like the intestines and uterus. The fibrils of Type III collagen have a generally thinner diameter compared with Type I collagen fibrils (Lapiere et al., 1977; for review see; Kadler et al., 1996), however the triple helical domain is longer in length being composed of 340 amino acid repeats compared to 338 amino acid repeats in Type I collagen. In the early repair of the injured tendon, Type III collagen fibrils are quickly synthesized to restore strength and elasticity (Williams et al., 1984; Dahlgren et al., 2005). However, the fibrils do not have the same tensile strength quality as Type I collagen and so lack the functional properties needed in a tendon experiencing maximal load. The repair processes continues with Type III fibrils slowly being replaced by Type I collagen fibrils in an attempt to normalize the properties of the tendon (Duance et al., 1977; Williams et al., 1984; Dahlgren et al., 2005). Type III collagen contains high levels of OHPr and glycine. It has been reported that these high levels of glycine may cause localised helix instability resulting in increased susceptibility to proteolytic cleavage and rapid turnover of the extracellular matrices containing this collagen (Linsenmayer, 1991). The frequency of Type III collagen is considered to be an indicator of tissue age, and is common in the early stages of healing and scar tissue formation where it provides mechanical strength to the matrix (Burgeson Nimni, 1992). 1.2.1.4 Type IV Collagen The non-fibrillar collagen, Type IV (Bailey et  al., 1979), is a basement membrane-associated collagen (Light Champion, 1984) composed of triple helical isoforms consisting of six genetically distinct chains [ÃŽ ±1(IV) to ÃŽ ±6(IV)]. Each chain is characterised by a long collagenous domain of approximately 1400 amino acid residues of Gly-X-Y repeats, that are interrupted at several sites by a short non-collagenous sequence and approximately 15 amino acid residue non-collagenous amino-terminus, and an approximately 230 amino acid residue non-collagenous domain at the carboxyl-terminus (Mayne, 1997). Type IV collagen has been reported to represent approximately 2% of the total collagen content of tendon (Ahtikoski et al., 2003). Unlike the fibrillar collagens discussed so far this collagen does not form fibrillar aggregates but are directly incorporated into the basement membrane without any prior excision of the pro-peptide extensions. Type IV collagen is found uniquely in the basement membrane of tendon blood vessels (von der Mark, 1981) where it forms a key structural compo